The Great
Mathematicians
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Al Biruni (Abu Raihan Mohamad ibn Ahmed Al Biruni) This great historian
mathematician astronomer, philosopher geologist and mineralogist was born
in one of the suburds of Khwarizm. One of his famous works was his book
Kitab Ul Hind which he wrote during his stay in India and Qumud Al Masud
(an astronomical encyclopedia) On the mathematical and astronomical side
of Geography he discussed the antipodes and roundity of the earth, the
determination of its movement and gave the latitudes and longitudes of
numerous places. |
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Al Khwarizmi (Mohamad ibn Musa Al Khwarizmi -780-850 CE) This mathematician
and astronomer's work is the first golden period of Islamic civilization.
Born in the city of Baghdad Al Kwarizmi was the first original mathematician
in the world. His great contribution came in his book Hisab Al Jabr wal
Muqubalah which laid the foundation for the science of algebra. Al Khwarizmi
was also the first great Muslim geographer who wrote the book, Surat Al
Arz or the shape of the Earth. Together with other 69 scholars he gave
a map of the world and this was one of the first map in the world.
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Umar Hayyam Umar Ibn Ibrahim Al Khayyam Al Khayyam was a great
Muslim mathematician, poet and astronomer. Some of his works include treatises
on arithmetic, algebra and astronomy. His solution of the euluc and liquadratic
with the help of conic section is the most advanced work in Mathematics
so far. |
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Al Battani Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Jabir Al Battani Born 850 in Harran,
Al Battani was a famous astrologer and leader in geometry and astronomy.
His achievements include inventing formulae for right angled triangles
such as b sin (A) = a sin (90-A), cataloguing 489 stars, detailing the
existing values for the length of the year (365 days 5 hours 48 minutes
24 seconds, and the seasons), calculating 54.5" per year for the precession
of the equinoxes and obtained the value of 23 35' for the inclination
of the ecliptic. He also showed that the farthest distance of the Sun
from the Earth varies and, which can explain the annular and total eclipses
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The Medical Sciences 
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Ibn Sina / Avicenna Known as Shaikh al-Rais (Leader Amongst Wise Man), Ibn Sina, already knew grammar, literature, and theology and memorized the whole of the Quran by the time he was ten. His father took great interest in his studies and found him the best tutors available. For instance, he invited mathematician, al-Natili to stay in his house to teach Ibn Sina mathematics. Under Natili's tutelage, he mastered the Almagest, the Elements of Euclid and logic. Having mastered mathematics, he turned his attention to physics, metaphysics and medicine. By the time he was sixteen, Ibn Sina had mastered all the sciences of his day and was an accomplished physician. At eighteen, thanks to the commentary of al-Farabi, he mastered Aristotle metaphysics, which at first had presented considerable difficulty to him. His mastery of medicine made him a favorite of the ruler who he successfully treated when the latter was seriously ill. As a reward, he negotiated for access the palace library, which was stocked with one of the best collections of books on medieval learning. Ibn Sina had also been a Wazir and had to, on occasions, assume responsibilities of running a state. Yet, he lived an intense intellectual life as witnessed by the number and nature of his works. He was known to dictate some of his works to a scribe while riding on a horseback with the Amir to battles. None of these distractions affected his intellectual output. On this point his disciple, al-Juzjani was reported to have said, "The studying was done by night because during the day, his attendance upon the Amir left him no spare time." Therefore, despite being immersed in the life of world of politics and court, he was able to lay the foundation of medieval scholastic philosophy, to synthesize the Hippocratic and Galenic traditions of medicine and influence the arts and sciences. His response to friends who advised him to slow down was, "I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length".
Within a brief span of 57 years, he produced an astounding number of works on varied subjects on philosophy, science, religion, cosmology and metaphysics. Despite the loss of several of his works, including major ones such the 20 volume Kitab al-insaf on the arbitration on 'Eastern' and 'Western' philosophies, over 250 books treatises, and letters of Ibn Sina have survived. His great work al Qanun fi Tibb (Canon Of Medicine) was translated into Latin towards the end of the twelfth century and became a reference source for medical universities of Europe until the end of the 17th century. To him, education was required for the overall growth of the individual followed by preparation of the individual to live in society through a chosen trade in accordance with his abilities. Ibn Sina also contributed to mathematics, physics, music and other fields. He made several astronomical observations, and devised a device similar to the vernier, to increase the precision of instrumental readings. In Physics, he contributed to the study of different forms of energy, heat, light and mechanical, and such concepts as force, vacuum and infinity. He made the important observation that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by the luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. He propounded on an interconnection between time and motion, and also made investigations on specific gravity and used an air thermometer. The influence of Ibn Sina on east and West was immense. In the Islamic world his spirit has dominated the intellectual activity of all later periods. In the West he become known as the 'Prince Of Physicians' and dominated medcial sciences for centuries while his philosophical and theological views left his mark upon many important figures such as Albertus Magnus, St Thomas, Duns Scotus and Roger Bacon.
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Al Razi This great physician
and alchemist was known as the Rahzes in Europe. He was born in Teheran
and also died in his native city. Al Razi wrote close to 200 books all
of it were medical in nature. Some of his famous medical books were Kitab
Al Mansur, Kitab Al Hawi and Kitab Al Asrar (the book of secrets). He
is also considered the inventor of Seton, the one who discovered sulphuric
acid and aquavitae.
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Jabir Ibn Hayyan Known as the father
of of Modern Chemistry, he set up a laboratory at Kufa at about 776 CE
and he discovered several compounds and wrote many books. Three of his
books managed to survive up to this day, Kitab Al Rahmah, Kitab al Tajmi
and Al Zibaq al Sharqi.He improved on the methods of evaporation, sublimation,
melting and crystallization. |
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Az Zahrawi / Albucasis Az Zahrawi is a reowned
surgeon in the 10th century. He introduced various medical techniques
and invented surgical tools from metal in replace of gold and bronze,
as well as latest surgery techniques on external and internal organs.
Many European experts in the field of surgey learned from Az Zahrawi's
books, which contains illustrations as well. |
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Al Antaki / David of Antioch
Da'ud ibn ‘Umar Al
Antaki was born blind in Antioch (Syria). Despite his disability, he became
a famous pharmacist in the 11th century ad learned many foreign languages
(in addition to Arabic), including Greek. His life was dedicated to travelling
across Turkey, Syam and Egypt to seek knowledge. He finally resided in
Egypt and worked as a senior pharmacist. Al Antaki produced a number of
medical books and his famous writing was entitled Tadhkirah or "Memorandum
Book", is still available today in bookstalls in Egypt in modern printings.
It specifies more than 3000 types of plants with healing powers.
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Philosophy and Thought 
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Al Farabi Al-Farabi occupies a unique position in the history of thought as the link between Greek thought and Islamic thought. He made considerable contributions to logic, ethics, politics, mathematics, chemistry and music. In him, an elaborate system of thought was crystallized for the first time in Islamic thought. Al-Farabi is known as the 'Second Teacher', by reference to Aristotle, the 'First Teacher'. There are differing explanations for the title, the most notable being that in recognition for his role in classifying thought and knowledge. The term 'Teacher' in this context was not used only for one who teaches or is a master of sciences. Rather, it is a title accorded to one who defines, for the first time, the boundaries and limits of each branch of knowledge and formulates each science is a systematic fashion. Aristotle was known as the 'First Teacher' because he was the first to be known to have classified, defined and formulated the various sciences. Al-Farabi lived during a time when as a result of numerous translations made from various languages and drawn from different cultures, Islamic civilization had come to confront new and different sciences, methodologies and philosophies. He took a fundamental step to bring order to the sciences, harmonised them with aspects of Islamic thought and therefore prevented intellectual chaos and anarchy. Al-Farabi's classification had an educational objective. His educational philosophy sought to ensure that the individual is prepared from an early age to become a member of society, to maximize his potential and to reach the goal for which he is created. He believed that curriculum should be in the following sequences - language, logic, mathematics, natural sciences, theology, civics, jurisprudence and academic theology (kalam). In music, he is said
to have been able to play his lute to move his audience into a fit of
laughter, drew tears from their eyes or set them to sleep. Apart from
his practical musical skills, he was an accomplished musical theoretician.
He regards music to be a branch of mathematics. His Kitab al Musiqa al
Kabir (Large Musical Treatise) is regarded by many as the greatest piece
of work on music theory in the Middle Ages and his definitions continued
to be quoted by musicologists for 700 years. Al-Farabi was also recognized
as a great political philosopher. His political philosophy as contained
in Risalah fi Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadilah (Epistle On The Opinions Of
People In The Virtuous City) presents his conception of a model city,
which he conceives as a hierarchical organism analogous to the human body.
The sovereign, who corresponds to the heart, is served by functionaries
who are themselves served by others. In his model, the object of association
is the happiness of its citizens and the sovereign is morally and intellectual
sound. |
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Ibn Khaldun He was a great Muslim
historian and sociologist. Born in 1332 in Tunisia he migrated to Spain
but later returned. His greatest works were his Kitab Al Ibar a universal
history prefaced by one volume, which was called the Muqaddimah. Muqaddimah
is the most powerful of the volumes as it explains the pattern of history
behaviour in the light of science. |
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Al Kindi He was the first great philosopher called the great philosopher of the Arabs. He was born at Kufa. He wrote about 273 works on various subjects. Most of his works did not survive to this date except for a few Latin translations. He concentrated not only in philosophy, mathematics, music and geography. He also discussed specific Islamic issues. |
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Ibn Rushd - The King Philosopher By Dr. M. A. Muqtedar Khan (First Published in Islamic Horizons Sept/Oct 1998, pp. 48-49.) This brief article is dedicated to the memory of Ibn Rushd (1128-1198). On the 800 hundredth anniversary of his death, I would like to remember the contributions of this great Muslim. Abul-Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd was born in Cardova, Spain in 520 A.H. (1128 C.E.). During his life time Ibn Rushd worked as a Qadi (judge) in Morocco and Spain and was for over ten years the Chief Qadi of Cardova. He was also a physician and adviser at the courts of the Moroccan Caliph and the Spanish Caliph. Ibn Rushd wrote over 87 books on philosophy and over twenty on medicine. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle's Anima and Politics, on Plato's Republic and on Farabi's Logic. While his commentaries made him the most famous philosopher in the West from the 12th to the 17th century, his most original works in philosophy were Fas al-Maqal (The Decisive Treatise), al-Kashf `an Manahij al-Adillah (The Exposition ofthe Methods of Proof) and Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of Incoherence). In the first two books he challenges Asharite theology in order to emphasize the harmony of philosophy and religion, or reason and faith. In the third he takes on Al-Ghazali's attack on philosophy head on and in the process makes his own position on the relation between philosophy and religion clear. He uses this opportunity to also provide an Islamic understanding of Aristotle. Ibn Rushd, like Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina before him, saw no discordance between religion and philosophy. He maintained that both philosophy and religion were capable of leading humanity to truth. Interestingly, unlike other philosophers Ibn Rushd recognized the validity and significance of prophecy. He also believed that shariah derived from prophecy was definitely superior to the nomos (laws)derived from reason. However, Ibn Rushd was also convinced that the philosophers approach to both nature and revealed text was superior to that of the fuqaha (jurists) and the mutkallimoon (theologians). Ibn Rushd identified three methods to knowledge. The burhan (method of logical demonstration) was the most superior method and in his opinion only the philosopher was capable of employing this approach. The second was jadal (dialectical). Jadal according to Ibn Rushd was the method used by theologians. And finally the art of Khatabah (rhetoric, sophistry and persuasion). This method Ibn Rushd argued was to be used while dealing with the masses. Indeed the theologians were masters of this art, which often prompted Islamic philosophers to use the Greek analogy of sophists for Muslim theologians. Ibn Rushd represents a unique convergence of philosophy, religion, science and law. For over four decades he was a prominent judge in al-Andalus and was not only a major practitioner of Maliki law but he was also an important scholar of Maliki jurisprudence. As a court physician and the author of the famous text Kulliyat, known and widely used in Western medical schools as Colliget, Ibn Rushd was the preeminent medical practitioner of his time. His impact on the study of medicine was felt for over 500 years. He is well known for his commentaries on Aristotle and for his critique of Neoplatonism of al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. But he is best known for his reconciliation of religion and philosophy, aql (reason) and naql (tradition). Ibn Rushd used Quranic injunctions to reflect upon and to observe Allah's signs as an injunction to philosophize. He genuinely believed that the methodology of the theologians was not adequate to elucidate the divine Shariah and in an extremely clever fashion underscored the religious necessity of philosophy. Ibn Rushd's contribution to reconciling philosophy and religion actually was a deconstruction of the differences between Asharite theologians and ancient Greek philosophers. He was able to show that the elements of Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy that the Asharites deemed unIslamic was indeed within the domain of the freedom of thought allowed by Islamic shariah. Philosophy, since Ibn Rushd has evolved very much and so has theology. Indeed we are living in an era which is witnessing the emergence of a philosophical tradition explicitly opposed to "reason" (postmodernism). Moreover modern philosophy and its secularized world view make us wonder whether even Ibn Rushd can bridge the gap between religion and modernity today?. One of the unfortunate consequences of the decline of philosophy in the Muslim world has been the stagnation of Islamic sciences. Deprived of the intellectual challenge from philosophy, Islamic theology has become stunted and indeed in dire need of reexamination. Islamic philosophy had played a major role in the development of Islamic theology and Fiqh. Remember, initially the sources of Islamic Law were, The Quran and the Sunnah alone. But the development of the Usul al-fiqh and the use of ijtihad (independent reasoning) has led tothe recognition that public interest and reason can also contribute tolegislation, particularly in areas on which the original sources (Quranand Sunnah) are silent. This development transpired when Islamic theologians and jurists were forced to respond to challenges posed by rational theologians like the muttazalites and philosophers. Thus the dialectics between reason and revelation was played out as debates between philosophers and theologians, between Sufis (mystics) and Fuqaha (jurists). The debates between Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd, and IbnRushd and Ibn Taymiyyah, are great milestones in the general development of Islamic thought. As inheritors of this great intellectual tradition we are indeed blessed. It is time that we remember the contributions of Ibn Rushd to Islamic thought. The great Muslim philosopher enriched Islamic discourses through his writings on Law and his debates with the theologians. He also enriched and indeed transformed Christian theology through Aquinas and Jewish theology through Maimonides. We need to revive the spirit of Ibn Rushd to once again inject vitality into Islamic thought. Even though we lament the fact that Ibn Rushd did not have a great impact on Islamic thought and are jealous of the West which has benefited from him so much, we can remember with pride his role in the most fascinating debate between philosophers and theologians that spanned four centuries. This debate remains an integral part of the development of Islamic thought and Ibn Rushd played a central role in it. We conclude by reminding our readers that great scholars like Ibn Rushd are jewels not only in the heritage of Islam but also in the legacy of World civilization. Ibn Rushd may not have been a Philosopher-King but he was indeed a King amongst philosophers. |
For more detailed information on their
contribution and to find out more about other thinkers, visit http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Publications/Thinkers/thinhome.htm
